wrting learning objectives

Writing Learning Objectives: Beginning With The End In Mind

Learning Objectives

Participants will be able to: • Compare and contrast learning objectives vs.

learning goals.

• List the 3 parts of the “ideal” learning objective.

• Write learning objectives that contain a measurable verb and communicate clearly to the student.

• Develop learning objectives which demonstrate Bloom’s higher levels of thinking.

Some History

Objectives are statements which describe what the learner is expected to achieve as a result of instruction.

Because they direct attention to the student and the types of behaviors they should exhibit, sometimes these statements are called “behavioral” objectives.

SSome other names you will see for behavioral objectives include: •Learning objectives •Outcomes •Enabling objectives

•Terminal objectives •Educational objectives •Performance objectives •Instructional objectives •Aims

•Competencies

History

• Objectives were conceptualized and used during WWII as a way to make teaching and learning more efficient.

• In the late 1950s and in the 1960s this approach was applied to the public schools.

• By the 1960s health professions schools were developing behavioral objectives.

• 1962 = publication of Preparing Instructional Objectives by Robert F. Mager

TThe point here is that learning objectives have been around a long time. Robert Mager can probably be credited with launching the move toward the broad based movement to utilize learning objectives. Ironically, the title of his book added to some confusion regarding learning objectives. Some people looked at the title and concluded that objectives referred to what the teacher would do as opposed to what the learner would do. Mager’s book was printed as a second edition in 1975.

Goals

• Definition

– A statement that describes in broad terms what the learner will gain from instruction

• Example

– Students will gain an appreciation of the role of the family medicine physician in the health care system

TThe terms “goals” and “objectives” are sometimes used interchangeably. This is wrong. They are different. Goals are broad and sometimes difficulty to directly measure. The important thing about goals is that they help us focus on the big and important picture. I am sure that everyone in family medicine would agree that the goal stated on the slide above is important and something we want the students to gain. From this goal one could write a set of related and specific learning objectives.

Learning Objective

• Definition

– A statement in specific and measurable terms that describes what the learner will know or be able to do as a result of engaging in a learning activity.

• Example

– Students will list three characteristics that make the family medicine physician distinctive from other specialists in the health care system.

AA learning objective or behavioral objective, if you prefer, is much more specific than a goal. According to Mager, the ideal learning objective has 3 parts:

1. A measurable verb

2. The important condition (if any) under which the performance is to occur and

3. The criterion of acceptable performance.

Frequently you will not see the criterion or the condition specified if they are obvious. However, sometimes the adding the condition(s) and/or the criterion add much clarity to a learning objective.

Purposes of Objectives

•

PPurposes of Objectives

– By knowing where you intend to go, you increase the chances of you and the learner ending up there

– Guides the teacher relative to the planning of instruction, delivery of instruction and evaluation of student achievement.

– Guides the learner; helps him/her focus and set priorities

– Allows for analysis in terms of the levels of teaching and learning

AAdditional purposes of objectives include:

•Shows colleagues and students what we value.

•Guide for the learner relative to self-assessment.

•Basis for analyzing the level of cognitive thinking we are expecting from the learner.

•Makes teaching more focused and organized.

•Provides models so that the students can write their own objectives and thus helps develop an important life long learning skill; “the setting of objectives.”

Magic Triangle

Objectives

LLearning Activities

EEvaluation

TThis triangle represents the relationship between learning objectives, learning activities and evaluation. If these three components are congruent then teaching and learning is enhanced, hence, “The Magic Triangle.” If these three components are not congruent then students become discouraged and unhappy and make the assumption the objectives cannot be trusted and they will stop paying attention to them. Note: learning activities are those things the student does to learn and hopefully the learning activities are somewhat planned by the teacher. For example, listening to a lecture would be a learning activity; as would engaging in a small group discussion led by a facilitator; as would making rounds with a clinician, etc. Evaluation is usually thought of as the test but evaluation could also be an assignment that is graded such as a project. The important thing is that whatever form the evaluation takes, the evaluation should measure the student’s accomplishment of the learning objectives.

Learning Objective Domains

• Cognitive (knowing) • Psychomotor (doing) • Affective (feeling)

Statements of affective outcomes include: “show sensitivity to” ... “accept responsibility for” .... “be willing to” ..... “demonstrate commitment to”

TThere are really 3 domains or categories of learning objectives. In medical school the cognitive objectives are the ones that we normally think about. Psychomotor objectives are also stated but many times they are stated in vague terms and they could be made much clearer if the criterion were included as part of the objectives. However, we rarely see objectives in the affective domain. This does not mean we don’t value the affective domain. In fact some would argue that it is the most important domain. It is just that objectives in the affective domain are a little hard to write and they are really hard to measure and usually that measurement involves a lot of subjectivity. Affective objectives will be the topic for another slide show.

Levels of Objectives

• Bloom’s Taxonomy – Knowledge – Comprehension – Application

– Analysis – Synthesis – Evaluation

EEvaluation

Knowledge

BBenjamin Bloom’s taxonomy has been around since the mid to late 50’s. His taxonomy of cognitive behavior provides a nice stair-step approach to thinking about levels of learning. The knowledge level refers to the level of memorization and regurgitation. Unfortunately, Research shows that this is the level at which a lot of medical school education is focused. For a more complete explanation of Bloom’s taxonomy visit the following site:

http://a41064.west.asu.edu/students/dfields/96-598/b.bloom.html

Levels of Objectives

• Name and describe the components of the Kemp Model.

• Utilize components of the Kemp Model to design an instructional sequence.

TThe purpose of this slide is to have you compare and contract the two stated learning objectives relative to their level in Bloom’s taxonomy. As an aside, the Kemp Model is an instructional design model and one component of that model happens to be “learning objectives.” To learn more about the Kemp Model click here.

Please note that the first learning objective can be placed in the “knowledge” level of Bloom’s taxonomy. Alternatively, the second objective is certainly at a higher level than “knowledge” because it requires the learner to apply his/her knowledge and understanding of the Kemp Model to design instruction. One could argue the exact level of Bloom’s taxonomy it addresses but we can all agree that it is about the knowledge level.

Levels of Objectives

• Name the five causes of dizziness.

• Given a patient case description, determine the three most likely causes of dizziness.

HHere are two more examples of learning objectives at different levels. Which level of Bloom’s taxonomy is the first one? What level is the second one?

Which of these two objectives requires the more thought and effort relative to writing a test question? I’ll bet you know the answer, and this partially explains why we see so many low level objectives and low level questions on medical school exams.

Relating the Measurable Verb to Bloom’s Levels

Evaluate Evaluation Design Synthesis

Distinguish Analysis

AApply

AApplication Explain Comprehension

Define Knowledge

OOn the next few slides you will see some examples of measurable verbs (examples in orange on this slide) that correspond to particular levels of Bloom’s taxonomy. I would argue that you can’t always determine the level of cognitive level of an objective just based on the measurable verb - but - having such a set of verbs can be helpful and in some cases do point to the cognitive level.

Knowledge Verbs (1st level)

• Define • Memorize • List • Recall • Repeat

•• Relate • Name • Repeat

Comprehension Verbs (2nd level)

• Restate • Discuss • Describe • Identify • Locate

•• Report • Explain • Express • Recognize • Review

Application Verbs (3rd level)

• Translate • Interpret • Apply • Practice • Illustrate • Operate

•• Demonstrate • Dramatize • Sketch • Employ

• Schedule • Use

Analysis Verbs (4th level)

• Distinguish • Differentiate • Appraise • Analyze • Calculate • Criticize

•• Compare • Contrast • Examine • Test

• Relate • Experiment

Synthesis Verbs (5th level)

• Compose • Plan • Propose • Design

• Assemble • Create

•• Prepare • Formulate • Organize • Manage • Construct • Set-up

Evaluation Verbs (6th level)

• Judge • Appraise • Evaluate • Revise • Score • Select

•• Measure • Value • Estimate • Choose • Compute • Assess

The Evolution of An Objective

Original Objective:

Using Fick's Law for Diffusion, contrast the movement of oxygen and glucose from the plasma to the intracellular space. Based on their chemical properties, predict which of these substances would show diffusion limited movement, and which would show flow limited movement.

TThe next few slides show the evolutionary development of an objective using input from a group that worked on developing a set of learning objectives for physiology. Basically the strategy was as follows. (1) An individual faculty member writes the first draft of the objective. (2) He/She explains the intent of the objective to a group. (3) The group responds with suggestions. (4) The objective is rewritten.

You can see more examples at the following web site:

http://www.physiol.med.ecu.edu/objectiv/template.htm

This particular site is from a medical physiology objectives project and has a lot of good information about writing objectives and some great examples.

The Evolution of an Objective

The author’s statement of intent:

I expect the students to review the factors influencing diffusion (presented earlier in the course), and contrast the movement of two different agents from the blood to the cell. I also expect a working definition of flow limited and diffusion limited transport.

The Evolution of an Objective

What the committee said:

Glucose movement is tissue specific, and entry into the cell by any of a variety of glucose transporters further obscures my intent (transport from the blood to the cell. Identify a tissue, and delete intracellular space. Finally transport is a poorly defined term, replace with exchange (the term used in the text)

The Evolution of an Objective

Final revised version:

Using Fick's Law for Diffusion, contrast the movement of oxygen and glucose from the plasma to a skeletal muscle cell. Based on their chemical properties, predict which of these substances would show diffusion limited exchange, and which would show flow limited exchange.

How Could This Objective Be Improved?

• The resident will demonstrate the ability to make empathic responses to patient statements that reflect particular emotions such as anger, sadness, concern, etc.

MMost objectives can be improved by systematically considering the three parts of an “ideal” objective according to Mager. So first look at the verb. In the objective above, the verb “demonstrate” is probably OK. It certainly implies that someone is going to have to observe the resident with a real or simulated patient as the resident responds. The observation could be done as the resident “demonstrates” in a role play situation. One could conclude that perhaps we need to clarify the context in which the resident will be demonstrating these empathic responses. So maybe we need to make this clear by giving what Mager would call the “conditions.” For this situation we will say the conditions are “with a simulated patient.” Another way we can add clarity is to specify what particular emphatic responses we are referring to and in what order these responses need to be made. So, in effect, these specific responses made in a certain sequence becomes the “criteria.”

The improved objective can be seen on the next slide.

How Could This Objective Be Improved?

• During an encounter with a simulated patient, the resident will demonstrate the ability to make empathic responses to patient statements that reflect particular emotions such as anger, sadness, concern, etc. The following specific empathic responses in the following sequence should be demonstrated.

– 1.Reflectivestatement – 2. ...... – 3. ...... – 4. ......

MMost objectives can be improved by systematically considering the three parts of an “ideal” objective according to Mager. So first look at the verb. In the objective above, the verb “demonstrate” is probably OK. It certainly implies that someone is going to have to observe the resident with a real or simulated patient as the resident responds. The observation could be done as the resident “demonstrates” in a role play situation. One could conclude that perhaps we need to clarify the context in which the resident will be demonstrating these empathic responses. So maybe we need to make this clear by giving what Mager would call the “conditions.” For this situation we will say the conditions are “with a simulated patient.” Another way we can add clarity is to specify what particular emphatic responses we are referring to and in what order these responses need to be made. So, in effect, these specific responses made in a certain sequence becomes the “criteria.”

The improved objective can be seen on the next slide.

Effective Learning Objectives

• Consistent with the goals of the curriculum

• Clearly stated • Clearly measurable • Realistic and doable • Appropriate for the level of the learner • Worthy (Important stuff)

TThe characteristics of effective objectives as stated above provide us with some criteria to evaluate objectives you construct.

Some Examples of Some Pretty Good Objectives?

• The learner will be able to: orally present a new patient’s case in a logical manner, chronologically developing the present illness, summarizing the pertinent positive & negatives findings as well as the differential & plans for further testing & management.

• The learner will be able to: describe the mechanisms of action for each of the two classes of neuromuscular blocking agents (depolarizing agents & competitive agents)

Some Examples of Some Pretty Good Objectives?

• The learner will be able to: describe suppurative arthritis. Include the usual pathways of joint infection, most common organisms, clinical manifestations, including lab diagnosis and the natural history.

• Given a ventriclogram and cath lab data of pressures, cardiac outputs and ejection fraction, identify the states of normal hearts, aortic stenosis and mitral regulation.

Some Examples of Some Pretty Good Objectives?

• Given a case problem, including history, physical findings, diagnosis, and list of prescribed drugs, state the physiologic, pathophysiologic and pharmacologic factors that could modify the drug response in that patient.

• Given the calculated results of tests compared with predicted normal values, determine the presence or absence of abnormal pulmonary function and classify it as to type and severity.

The End

Good luck in your efforts to write clear and measurable objectives that communicate well to learners and colleagues.

Writing Learning objectives

Writing Learning Objectives:

Learning Objectives

Participants will be able to: • Compare and contrast learning objectives vs.

learning goals.

• List the 3 parts of the “ideal” learning objective.

• Write learning objectives that contain a measurable verb and communicate clearly to the student.

• Develop learning objectives which demonstrate Bloom’s higher levels of thinking.

Some History

Objectives are statements which describe what the learner is expected to achieve as a result of instruction.

Because they direct attention to the student and the types of behaviors they should exhibit, sometimes these statements are called “behavioral” objectives.

SSome other names you will see for behavioral objectives include: •Learning objectives •Outcomes •Enabling objectives

•Terminal objectives •Educational objectives •Performance objectives •Instructional objectives •Aims

•Competencies

History

• Objectives were conceptualized and used during WWII as a way to make teaching and learning more efficient.

• In the late 1950s and in the 1960s this approach was applied to the public schools.

• By the 1960s health professions schools were developing behavioral objectives.

• 1962 = publication of Preparing Instructional Objectives by Robert F. Mager

TThe point here is that learning objectives have been around a long time. Robert Mager can probably be credited with launching the move toward the broad based movement to utilize learning objectives. Ironically, the title of his book added to some confusion regarding learning objectives. Some people looked at the title and concluded that objectives referred to what the teacher would do as opposed to what the learner would do. Mager’s book was printed as a second edition in 1975.

Goals

• Definition

– A statement that describes in broad terms what the learner will gain from instruction

• Example

– Students will gain an appreciation of the role of the family medicine physician in the health care system

TThe terms “goals” and “objectives” are sometimes used interchangeably. This is wrong. They are different. Goals are broad and sometimes difficulty to directly measure. The important thing about goals is that they help us focus on the big and important picture. I am sure that everyone in family medicine would agree that the goal stated on the slide above is important and something we want the students to gain. From this goal one could write a set of related and specific learning objectives.

Learning Objective

• Definition

– A statement in specific and measurable terms that describes what the learner will know or be able to do as a result of engaging in a learning activity.

• Example

– Students will list three characteristics that make the family medicine physician distinctive from other specialists in the health care system.

AA learning objective or behavioral objective, if you prefer, is much more specific than a goal. According to Mager, the ideal learning objective has 3 parts:

1. A measurable verb

2. The important condition (if any) under which the performance is to occur and

3. The criterion of acceptable performance.

Frequently you will not see the criterion or the condition specified if they are obvious. However, sometimes the adding the condition(s) and/or the criterion add much clarity to a learning objective.

Purposes of Objectives

•

PPurposes of Objectives

– By knowing where you intend to go, you increase the chances of you and the learner ending up there

– Guides the teacher relative to the planning of instruction, delivery of instruction and evaluation of student achievement.

– Guides the learner; helps him/her focus and set priorities

– Allows for analysis in terms of the levels of teaching and learning

AAdditional purposes of objectives include:

•Shows colleagues and students what we value.

•Guide for the learner relative to self-assessment.

•Basis for analyzing the level of cognitive thinking we are expecting from the learner.

•Makes teaching more focused and organized.

•Provides models so that the students can write their own objectives and thus helps develop an important life long learning skill; “the setting of objectives.”

Magic Triangle

Objectives

LLearning Activities

EEvaluation

TThis triangle represents the relationship between learning objectives, learning activities and evaluation. If these three components are congruent then teaching and learning is enhanced, hence, “The Magic Triangle.” If these three components are not congruent then students become discouraged and unhappy and make the assumption the objectives cannot be trusted and they will stop paying attention to them. Note: learning activities are those things the student does to learn and hopefully the learning activities are somewhat planned by the teacher. For example, listening to a lecture would be a learning activity; as would engaging in a small group discussion led by a facilitator; as would making rounds with a clinician, etc. Evaluation is usually thought of as the test but evaluation could also be an assignment that is graded such as a project. The important thing is that whatever form the evaluation takes, the evaluation should measure the student’s accomplishment of the learning objectives.

Learning Objective Domains

• Cognitive (knowing) • Psychomotor (doing) • Affective (feeling)

Statements of affective outcomes include: “show sensitivity to” ... “accept responsibility for” .... “be willing to” ..... “demonstrate commitment to”

TThere are really 3 domains or categories of learning objectives. In medical school the cognitive objectives are the ones that we normally think about. Psychomotor objectives are also stated but many times they are stated in vague terms and they could be made much clearer if the criterion were included as part of the objectives. However, we rarely see objectives in the affective domain. This does not mean we don’t value the affective domain. In fact some would argue that it is the most important domain. It is just that objectives in the affective domain are a little hard to write and they are really hard to measure and usually that measurement involves a lot of subjectivity. Affective objectives will be the topic for another slide show.

Levels of Objectives

• Bloom’s Taxonomy – Knowledge – Comprehension – Application

– Analysis – Synthesis – Evaluation

EEvaluation

Knowledge

BBenjamin Bloom’s taxonomy has been around since the mid to late 50’s. His taxonomy of cognitive behavior provides a nice stair-step approach to thinking about levels of learning. The knowledge level refers to the level of memorization and regurgitation. Unfortunately, Research shows that this is the level at which a lot of medical school education is focused. For a more complete explanation of Bloom’s taxonomy visit the following site:

http://a41064.west.asu.edu/students/dfields/96-598/b.bloom.html

Levels of Objectives

• Name and describe the components of the Kemp Model.

• Utilize components of the Kemp Model to design an instructional sequence.

TThe purpose of this slide is to have you compare and contract the two stated learning objectives relative to their level in Bloom’s taxonomy. As an aside, the Kemp Model is an instructional design model and one component of that model happens to be “learning objectives.” To learn more about the Kemp Model click here.

Please note that the first learning objective can be placed in the “knowledge” level of Bloom’s taxonomy. Alternatively, the second objective is certainly at a higher level than “knowledge” because it requires the learner to apply his/her knowledge and understanding of the Kemp Model to design instruction. One could argue the exact level of Bloom’s taxonomy it addresses but we can all agree that it is about the knowledge level.

Levels of Objectives

• Name the five causes of dizziness.

• Given a patient case description, determine the three most likely causes of dizziness.

HHere are two more examples of learning objectives at different levels. Which level of Bloom’s taxonomy is the first one? What level is the second one?

Which of these two objectives requires the more thought and effort relative to writing a test question? I’ll bet you know the answer, and this partially explains why we see so many low level objectives and low level questions on medical school exams.

Relating the Measurable Verb to Bloom’s Levels

Evaluate Evaluation Design Synthesis

Distinguish Analysis

AApply

AApplication Explain Comprehension

Define Knowledge

OOn the next few slides you will see some examples of measurable verbs (examples in orange on this slide) that correspond to particular levels of Bloom’s taxonomy. I would argue that you can’t always determine the level of cognitive level of an objective just based on the measurable verb - but - having such a set of verbs can be helpful and in some cases do point to the cognitive level.

Knowledge Verbs (1st level)

• Define • Memorize • List • Recall • Repeat

•• Relate • Name • Repeat

Comprehension Verbs (2nd level)

• Restate • Discuss • Describe • Identify • Locate

•• Report • Explain • Express • Recognize • Review

Application Verbs (3rd level)

• Translate • Interpret • Apply • Practice • Illustrate • Operate

•• Demonstrate • Dramatize • Sketch • Employ

• Schedule • Use

Analysis Verbs (4th level)

• Distinguish • Differentiate • Appraise • Analyze • Calculate • Criticize

•• Compare • Contrast • Examine • Test

• Relate • Experiment

Synthesis Verbs (5th level)

• Compose • Plan • Propose • Design

• Assemble • Create

•• Prepare • Formulate • Organize • Manage • Construct • Set-up

Evaluation Verbs (6th level)

• Judge • Appraise • Evaluate • Revise • Score • Select

•• Measure • Value • Estimate • Choose • Compute • Assess

The Evolution of An Objective

Original Objective:

Using Fick's Law for Diffusion, contrast the movement of oxygen and glucose from the plasma to the intracellular space. Based on their chemical properties, predict which of these substances would show diffusion limited movement, and which would show flow limited movement.

TThe next few slides show the evolutionary development of an objective using input from a group that worked on developing a set of learning objectives for physiology. Basically the strategy was as follows. (1) An individual faculty member writes the first draft of the objective. (2) He/She explains the intent of the objective to a group. (3) The group responds with suggestions. (4) The objective is rewritten.

You can see more examples at the following web site:

http://www.physiol.med.ecu.edu/objectiv/template.htm

This particular site is from a medical physiology objectives project and has a lot of good information about writing objectives and some great examples.

The Evolution of an Objective

The author’s statement of intent:

I expect the students to review the factors influencing diffusion (presented earlier in the course), and contrast the movement of two different agents from the blood to the cell. I also expect a working definition of flow limited and diffusion limited transport.

The Evolution of an Objective

What the committee said:

Glucose movement is tissue specific, and entry into the cell by any of a variety of glucose transporters further obscures my intent (transport from the blood to the cell. Identify a tissue, and delete intracellular space. Finally transport is a poorly defined term, replace with exchange (the term used in the text)

The Evolution of an Objective

Final revised version:

Using Fick's Law for Diffusion, contrast the movement of oxygen and glucose from the plasma to a skeletal muscle cell. Based on their chemical properties, predict which of these substances would show diffusion limited exchange, and which would show flow limited exchange.

How Could This Objective Be Improved?

• The resident will demonstrate the ability to make empathic responses to patient statements that reflect particular emotions such as anger, sadness, concern, etc.

MMost objectives can be improved by systematically considering the three parts of an “ideal” objective according to Mager. So first look at the verb. In the objective above, the verb “demonstrate” is probably OK. It certainly implies that someone is going to have to observe the resident with a real or simulated patient as the resident responds. The observation could be done as the resident “demonstrates” in a role play situation. One could conclude that perhaps we need to clarify the context in which the resident will be demonstrating these empathic responses. So maybe we need to make this clear by giving what Mager would call the “conditions.” For this situation we will say the conditions are “with a simulated patient.” Another way we can add clarity is to specify what particular emphatic responses we are referring to and in what order these responses need to be made. So, in effect, these specific responses made in a certain sequence becomes the “criteria.”

The improved objective can be seen on the next slide.

How Could This Objective Be Improved?

• During an encounter with a simulated patient, the resident will demonstrate the ability to make empathic responses to patient statements that reflect particular emotions such as anger, sadness, concern, etc. The following specific empathic responses in the following sequence should be demonstrated.

– 1.Reflectivestatement – 2. ...... – 3. ...... – 4. ......

MMost objectives can be improved by systematically considering the three parts of an “ideal” objective according to Mager. So first look at the verb. In the objective above, the verb “demonstrate” is probably OK. It certainly implies that someone is going to have to observe the resident with a real or simulated patient as the resident responds. The observation could be done as the resident “demonstrates” in a role play situation. One could conclude that perhaps we need to clarify the context in which the resident will be demonstrating these empathic responses. So maybe we need to make this clear by giving what Mager would call the “conditions.” For this situation we will say the conditions are “with a simulated patient.” Another way we can add clarity is to specify what particular emphatic responses we are referring to and in what order these responses need to be made. So, in effect, these specific responses made in a certain sequence becomes the “criteria.”

The improved objective can be seen on the next slide.

Effective Learning Objectives

• Consistent with the goals of the curriculum

• Clearly stated • Clearly measurable • Realistic and doable • Appropriate for the level of the learner • Worthy (Important stuff)

TThe characteristics of effective objectives as stated above provide us with some criteria to evaluate objectives you construct.

Some Examples of Some Pretty Good Objectives?

• The learner will be able to: orally present a new patient’s case in a logical manner, chronologically developing the present illness, summarizing the pertinent positive & negatives findings as well as the differential & plans for further testing & management.

• The learner will be able to: describe the mechanisms of action for each of the two classes of neuromuscular blocking agents (depolarizing agents & competitive agents)

Some Examples of Some Pretty Good Objectives?

• The learner will be able to: describe suppurative arthritis. Include the usual pathways of joint infection, most common organisms, clinical manifestations, including lab diagnosis and the natural history.

• Given a ventriclogram and cath lab data of pressures, cardiac outputs and ejection fraction, identify the states of normal hearts, aortic stenosis and mitral regulation.

Some Examples of Some Pretty Good Objectives?

• Given a case problem, including history, physical findings, diagnosis, and list of prescribed drugs, state the physiologic, pathophysiologic and pharmacologic factors that could modify the drug response in that patient.

• Given the calculated results of tests compared with predicted normal values, determine the presence or absence of abnormal pulmonary function and classify it as to type and severity.

The End

Good luck in your efforts to write clear and measurable objectives that communicate well to learners and colleagues.

www.yestolife.co.in

concept attainment model

CONCEPT ATTAINMENT

Background

It seems that most of what we do in science is categorize or classify objects or events for the purpose of generalizing.  To do this, scientists must observe carefully.  Although scientists are certainly not the only people who classify, scientists often classify in different ways than the rest of us do.  Note that there is nothing about the ways in which scientists classify that is better than the ways others classify.  It is a different way, not better.  However, in science class, we want the students to learn to classify in similar ways to scientists.  We want them to be familiar with science categories so they can follow a scientific conversation – at least a little bit.  We want them to be able to read a newspaper science article and understand what they have read.  Better yet, they would be able to guess at some of the mistakes the journalist has made in interpreting what the scientists have learned.  Even better, they might also be able to critique the conclusions that scientists themselves have made.

A concept attainment method involves students learning to classify a set of objects or events in a way that scientists classify.  The students will be using the categories that scientists use, and will be attempting to determine the rationale behind the categories.

The Concept Attainment Method has a high tolerance for ambiguity.  This means that the students might seem to be following the wrong path, but eventually, they will come up with the expected answer.  You would use this method when the concept the students are expected to learn is fairly clear.  You would use this method instead of just telling the students or having them read, because students will learn the material much better when they figure it out for themselves.  As your students learn more about the classification, you will also learn more about it.  As well as learning the material better, and remembering it longer, the students will learn how to learn by using this model.  We want students to become independent learners and critical thinkers.  This method will help them with both these goals.

This method encourages certain of the Common Essential Learnings.  The most obvious are critical and creative thinking, communication, and of course, independent learning.  Personal and social values and skills might be included if you help your students work in a positive way with their peers.  As well, if the particular concept involves mathematical relationships, the students could use their numeracy.  If the particular concept involves understanding a technology, technological literacy might also be addressed.  Of course, as the students classify in the ways that scientists do, they will be learning a technique of science, and understanding techniques can be part of technological literacy.

Practicalities

Set up:

• Give your students sets of materials that have been classified.  You also tell them the names of the categories.  For example, you could give your students fifteen rocks, and organized into three groups:  five sedimentary rocks, five igneous, five metamorphic.
• Tell the students to find the characteristics that members of one group have in common that are different than the characteristics of members of other groups.  In other words, they should try to figure out why the five sedimentary rocks have been put in one group, and why the five metamorphic rocks have been put in a different group than the sedimentary rocks.  Etc.
• You might or might not have activities for the students to do with the materials so the students will study them in different ways.  If you want them to focus on the results of these activities for attaining their concepts, you will ask them to focus on these results.  For example, you might have them spill a little vinegar on their rock samples, you might have them hit their samples with another rock, etc.
• You will probably put your students into small groups.  Choose groups so they will work effectively together.
• If you wish to minimize your supervisory role, choose materials that are relatively safe to work with.  If there will be some danger in working with the materials, visualize what sorts of mistakes your students are likely to make.  Then warn them of the dangers in advance.

Carry out:

• The students study the materials, compare and contrast those that are in the same group and those that are in the different groups, attempting to determine the rationale that was used for the classification.  As the students are comparing and contrasting, they will develop different hypotheses, and will have opportunities to test their hypotheses by further examination of their materials, and by discussion in their small groups.
• The teacher's role at this stage is to meander through the classroom, observing the students at work.  You will act as referee and coach.  If students are hesitant about Ataking initiative", or if they are not testing the materials in a way in which they could, you might encourage them to go on with more tests.
• During this time, you could make anecdotal records, or fill in checklists of student actions.

Debrief:

For every teaching strategy involving a debrief, I will suggest a different method.   There are a number of ways in which debriefs can be done.  Please mix and match the different forms of debriefs you use.  In all large group (six or more students), encourage your students to use their conversation skills.  (Don't overteach this, though.  Tell them only once or twice in the year.  Remind them only when you see that they are really forgetting.)  Their conversational skills are to listen carefully to what other speakers say.  Then when they talk, they build on what others have said, and demonstrate this by using phrases such as "What I think is similar to what (another student) said", or "I disagree with what (another student) said, because ..."  Encourage them also to speak tentatively with phrases such as "I thought" or "it seems".

• Put pairs of small groups together, so that if you originally had ten small groups of 3 students, you now have five small groups of six people.  The groups are to discuss their observations and the reasons they think the objects have been classified together.  Limit the time they will have for this discussion.  When their time is up, give them a limited amount of time to come up with a ten word (or twenty, whatever you think is appropriate) phrase to summarize what they think the rationale is for the classification scheme.  Tell the group that they should select one member to be the presentor.
• Have each of the larger groups present their results to the class.
• If your students have not come up with the rationale they should have, think of why they haven't.  What background knowledge were they lacking, or what background knowledge contributed in a non-science way?  What other materials might have helped them to form the concept you wanted them to form?

Check up:

• Once your students have come up with their rationales for the classification scheme, give them a sample which is not labelled.  They are to choose which category this non-labelled sample fits in, and explain why they have classified it with this group.
• You could then ask how many groups changed their categories.

Hints

• For this teaching model to work well, the teacher should ensure that the initial samples given to the students are the clearest possible prototypes.  In other words, if you had given the students samples of vertebrate animals:  mammals, birds, fish, reptiles and amphibians, you would not give them whales and duckbilled platypuses amongst the mammals.  These mammals are not generally what is expected of mammals.  After the students have come up with the description of Abasic" mammals, then you could supply the exotic ones.
• Give the students time to develop their definitions of each category.  Do not interrupt them when their first hypotheses are wrong.  If you have set the model up correctly, the students will come up with the correct rationales eventually.

Examples of concept attainment models:

• Give your students pictures of animals which are classified as mammals, fish, reptiles, birds.  If you add skin samples to your selections, you could also include amphibians.
• Give your students a magnet, and let the magnet choose the materials which are magnetic and which are not, and then the students attempt to determine what the qualities of magnetic materials are vs. non-magnetic.
• Any two or more categories, and science is full of them, will be appropriate.

commmunication and elements of communication

Definition of Communication

Communication is the process of stimulating meaning through the use of verbal and nonverbal messages.

There are three key elements in this definition:  Process, meaning, and message.

Here’s a thesaurus list of synonyms for each.

Process: procedure, development, course of action, method, route, practice.

Note that “process” is a verb of action.  Somebody does something.  That “doing something” involves meaning and messages.

Meaning: sense, connotation, denotation, import, gist, significance, experience.

Note that “meaning” is a subjective experience in our lives.  Meaning happens in the cognitorium, in the mind, in the head.  Our meaning does not have a specific physical referent like a body organ or even a discrete location in the brain.  Meaning is our private response to the world.

Message:  code, letter, note, symbol.

Note that “messages” contain coded meaning and allow us to express or convey the meanings within us.  Messages require rules like syntax and semantics.  Messages can be verbal like languages or nonverbal like gestures.

And while we’re at it, let’s look in the dictionary for words like verbal, nonverbal, oral, and language because I sometimes get them confused.  Verbal means communication with words.  Nonverbal means communication without words.  Oral means spoken.  Language means using words under rules.  Thus, someone can be verbal and either write or speak just so long as words are involved.  Nonverbal communication or the “language of the body” can reach the same outcomes as verbal communication but without words alone.  Oral always requires words and speech and is not written.  Language is words and the rules communicators use to convey meaning with one another in writing or speech.

Communication:  the process of meaning making through messages.  This definition implies other components.

Source:  the originator of the message.  The encoder.  The goal-setter.

Message:  coded meaning.  Symbols.  Representation of meaning.

Channel:  means of transmitting message.  Five senses, sight and sound primarily, but also touch, smell, and taste useful, too.

Receiver:  the target of source message.  The decoder.  A part of the goal.

Feedback:  receiver response to source messages.  Also, receiver clarification of particular message.

Noise:  Anything that interferes with communication.  Physical or psychological.

Encoding-Decoding:  Process of translating meaning into code.  Sources eN-code.  Receivers De-code.

Goals:  Purpose to be accomplished.  Creates drive.  Directs action.   Inform, relate, and persuade.

Models of Communication

If we take the components of communication and put them in a Model they will be easier to remember and use.

With any process, you have to start somewhere.  And even though it is a process, an organic mixture that is more than the sum of its parts, when you pick a place to start it provides a tone, a perspective, a philosophy that makes the process seem a little different compared to the tone or perspective you get from another starting point.

Consider the Model from a Source perspective.  If you think this way, communication engulfs you and surrounds you.  It emanates from you.  You are the sun, the source of light that illuminates.  Encoding is interesting and important while decoding is the other one’s problem. You set the goal.  You drive the process.

Now, consider the Model from a Receiver perspective.  Here, the receiver becomes the goal and is the object of energy and drive.  You encode only after you understand how the other decodes.  You succeed when the receiver succeeds, although, of course, you define that success.

This distinction between a Source orientation to communication and persuasion and a Receiver orientation to communication and persuasion is crucial.  Persuasion is not about you, the Source.

Persuasion is about the Receiver.

I don’t care about the Source of persuasion and how good you look or sound or how clever, trendy, or wise your Message may be and which Channel you use bores me.

What did the Receiver do?  Persuasion is about the Receiver or else it is about pride.

elements of communication

1. APPROACH

Timing of communication; choice of medium; tone and point of view (perspective, attitude, and relationship regarding audience, purpose, and material); recognition of audience (reader vs. writer orientation); direct vs. indirect presentation (ordering of evidence and conclusions); persuasive strategies and rhetorical appeals (logos, pathos, ethos)

Checkpoints:

□Timing and choice of medium are appropriate to the purpose, audience, and material.

□Tone is appropriate to the purpose, audience, and material.

□Material is made relevant to the reader (reader’s interests and concerns are recognized).

□Conclusions are presented directly (conclusion first, evidence last) to a sympathetic audience, indirectly (evidence first, conclusion last) to a unsympathetic or hostile audience.

□Persuasive strategy incorporates a mixture of rhetorical approaches (appeals to logic, feelings, and ethics or credibility).

2. DEVELOPMENT

Organization (logical arrangement and sequence); evidence and support (relevance, specificity, accuracy and sufficiency of detail); knowledge of subject and material; quality of perception, analysis, and insight

Checkpoints:

□Material is arranged in a logical and coherent sequence.

□Conclusion or closing restates the argument and identifies the action to be taken.

□Examples are relevant, specific, detailed, sufficient, and persuasive.

□Quotations support the argument.

□Handling of material demonstrates knowledge and insight.