Understanding Academic Discipline: Evolution and emerging trends in academic discipline

EVOLUTION AND EMERGING TRENDS IN ACADEMIC DISCIPLINES

The education is in a process of continuous changes. Myriads of changes and challenges are facing the by the scenario. In teacher education, the modern trends favour for emerging of academic disciplines and allied school subjects. The necessity of teachers with proficiency in academic disciplines and professionalism in school subjects are accounted as essential quality of prospective and ongoing teachers.

Teacher education sector seriously focusing on the necessity of emerging academic disciplines. Academic disciplines are in the making in the field. Some sort of new disciplines like ‘curriculum development’, ‘technology of education’; educational sociology and etc are emerged as new disciplines. Hence it is relevant to have a clear understanding on the academic discipline and its various factors by teachers and prospective teachers.

Academic Discipline

            The term academic discipline originates from the Latin words ‘discipulus’ which means ‘pupil’ and ‘disciplina’ which means ‘teaching’. Related to it, there is also the word ‘disciple’ as it is in the ‘disciple of Lord Budha’. The lexicon will give a whole range of quite different meaning of the term; from training to submission to an authority or to the control and self- control of behavior. The term discipline as a verb means training someone to follow a rigorous set of instructions and also imposing and enforcing obedience.

The term academic (scientific) discipline can be defined as the academic studies that focus on a self-imposed limited field of knowledge. It is the subject that one teaches and researches as part of higher education is the academic discipline of that person

It can also be defined as form of specific and rigorous scientific training that will turn out practitioners who have been disciplined by their discipline (subject) for their own good.

Academic Discipline: Special Features

            The term academic discipline becomes a technical term for the organization of learning and the systematic production of new knowledge. Disciplines are identified with taught subjects. But every subject taught at school or at university cannot be called a discipline. There are more to a discipline that the facts and concepts of a subject taught in academic setting. There are many criteria and characteristics which indicate whether a subject a distinct discipline (Biglan, 1973). Some of the essential characteristics of an academic discipline are given below:

1.      Disciplines have a particular object of research (eg: politics, society, human behavior)

2.      Disciplines have a structure  of accumulated specialist knowledge referring to their object of research

3.      Disciplines have theories and concepts that can organize the accumulated specialist knowledge effectively

4.      Disciplines use specific terminologies or specific languages adjusted to their research objects

5.      Disciplines have developed specific research methods according to their specific research requirements.

6.      Disciplines must have some institutional manifestation in the form of subjects taught at colleges or universities. It means a discipline will have academic departments and professional associations connected to it.

All these criteria may not be fulfilled by all disciplines. But an academic discipline must be perfect and should be able to accumulate more knowledge through the process of research. It must be dynamic.

Academic Disciplines: Classifications

Biglan (1973) has developed a classification for disciplines according to the beliefs held about them by the academic members. It most generally divides disciplines into ‘hard’ or ‘paradigmatic’ disciplines and ‘soft’ or ‘pre-paradigmatic disciplines’. Hard disciplines mean they are difficult to transcend. They are developed with certain peculiar academic area and may not be occurred any change from that peculiar areas. Soft disciplines are able to change. They are in the making and give birth to new academic areas. At the same time they will be able to keep their own academic identity.  

Another classification is that pure or theoretical disciplines (eg: Mathematics) and disciplines that engage with ‘living systems’ (eg: zoology) and disciplines that engage with ‘nonliving systems’ (eg: history).

            Tony (1981) classified academic disciplines as rural disciplines and urban disciplines. These classifications are based up on the scope and applicability of the disciplines. He also considered a classification of pure and applied disciplines to explain the functions of the disciplines.

 Academic Discipline: Some Insights

Academic discipline is vast accumulation of knowledge in a specific area. For eg: History is discipline. It can also consider Medieval Indian History a discipline. Physics is a discipline. Astro- physics is a discipline. Robotics is a discipline.

A discipline incorporates experts, people, projects, communities, students, inquiries, researches and etc that are strongly associated with the given discipline. For Eg: Micro economics or Bio Informatics or Educational Psychology or Human value education. Individuals associated with academic discipline are referred to as experts or specialists.

Educational institutions originally use the term discipline to list and record the new and expanding bodies of knowledge and informative procedure by the society or community. In 1980s there have an explosion of academic disciplines such as media studies, journalism, women studies, gender studies, black studies, pollution, oceanic pollution, hospitality management, hotel management and etc.

The Historical Perspective of Academic Discipline

Kenneth (1974) observes that like any other social phenomena academic disciplines do have a history. Every discipline can be analyzed by looking at its historical development. Historians of science can look at the specific historical conditions that led to the foundation of an academic discipline and at how it changed over time, or in other words, its evolution. The historical perspective helps to understand the great continuity of disciplines, but also the points of discontinuity or departure from obsolete practices and ways of thinking. Sometimes this leads to the disappearance of an older discipline and the creation of a new one that can replace it. In other words, the historical perspective captures the great dynamics of the development of science and the academic disciplines.

Historians will generally look for the wider societal context and the overall conditions that influenced the development of a specific discipline, for example the political climate or any particular needs society had at a particular time, as well as internal factors that shaped its development. For example, Julie (1990) has pointed out that the academic discipline was an invention of the late Middle Ages. The term was first applied to three academic areas for which universities had the responsibility of producing trained professionals: theology, law and medicine.  Julie argues that this early disciplining of knowledge was a response to external demands, while the specialization into disciplines that emerged in the 19th century was due to internal reasons.

The historical perspective shows that the development of academic disciplines cannot be understood without reference to historical context. It also helps understanding the evolutionary path taken by specific disciplines. Often new disciplines have been set up to meet particular political and societal needs. For example, Roger (2002) has shown that the social sciences were set up and prospered because of the political need of getting more information on the population, which could be used for more effective government and which helped to stabilise emerging political and societal structures. The new discipline of area studies was set up in the US after the Second World War in order to train ‘area specialists’ who could assist in shaping the increasingly global US foreign policy of the beginning Cold War era. Similarly, new disciplines like computer science and artificial intelligence were closely linked to military applications and prospered because of military funding. Once these new disciplines had been set up they developed a life of their own, possibly freed from their original purpose if they managed to diversify their funding and main stakeholders.

The formation of a new discipline thus requires talented scientists who can take over the burden of intellectual leadership by defining what the new discipline is about and by giving it a clear agenda for research, which can inspire followers. In other words, founding a new discipline needs adventurous pioneers who are willing to leave their original discipline behind and to cover new ground, which always includes a certain risk that they and their new discipline will possibly fail.

This means that practically every new discipline starts off necessarily as an interdisciplinary project that combines elements from some parent discipline(s) with original new elements and insights. Once the discipline is established a new type of researcher is needed. The new discipline needs people who can consolidate it by filling in the gaps left by the pioneers.

concept attainment model

CONCEPT ATTAINMENT

Background

It seems that most of what we do in science is categorize or classify objects or events for the purpose of generalizing.  To do this, scientists must observe carefully.  Although scientists are certainly not the only people who classify, scientists often classify in different ways than the rest of us do.  Note that there is nothing about the ways in which scientists classify that is better than the ways others classify.  It is a different way, not better.  However, in science class, we want the students to learn to classify in similar ways to scientists.  We want them to be familiar with science categories so they can follow a scientific conversation – at least a little bit.  We want them to be able to read a newspaper science article and understand what they have read.  Better yet, they would be able to guess at some of the mistakes the journalist has made in interpreting what the scientists have learned.  Even better, they might also be able to critique the conclusions that scientists themselves have made.

A concept attainment method involves students learning to classify a set of objects or events in a way that scientists classify.  The students will be using the categories that scientists use, and will be attempting to determine the rationale behind the categories.

The Concept Attainment Method has a high tolerance for ambiguity.  This means that the students might seem to be following the wrong path, but eventually, they will come up with the expected answer.  You would use this method when the concept the students are expected to learn is fairly clear.  You would use this method instead of just telling the students or having them read, because students will learn the material much better when they figure it out for themselves.  As your students learn more about the classification, you will also learn more about it.  As well as learning the material better, and remembering it longer, the students will learn how to learn by using this model.  We want students to become independent learners and critical thinkers.  This method will help them with both these goals.

This method encourages certain of the Common Essential Learnings.  The most obvious are critical and creative thinking, communication, and of course, independent learning.  Personal and social values and skills might be included if you help your students work in a positive way with their peers.  As well, if the particular concept involves mathematical relationships, the students could use their numeracy.  If the particular concept involves understanding a technology, technological literacy might also be addressed.  Of course, as the students classify in the ways that scientists do, they will be learning a technique of science, and understanding techniques can be part of technological literacy.

Practicalities

Set up:

• Give your students sets of materials that have been classified.  You also tell them the names of the categories.  For example, you could give your students fifteen rocks, and organized into three groups:  five sedimentary rocks, five igneous, five metamorphic.
• Tell the students to find the characteristics that members of one group have in common that are different than the characteristics of members of other groups.  In other words, they should try to figure out why the five sedimentary rocks have been put in one group, and why the five metamorphic rocks have been put in a different group than the sedimentary rocks.  Etc.
• You might or might not have activities for the students to do with the materials so the students will study them in different ways.  If you want them to focus on the results of these activities for attaining their concepts, you will ask them to focus on these results.  For example, you might have them spill a little vinegar on their rock samples, you might have them hit their samples with another rock, etc.
• You will probably put your students into small groups.  Choose groups so they will work effectively together.
• If you wish to minimize your supervisory role, choose materials that are relatively safe to work with.  If there will be some danger in working with the materials, visualize what sorts of mistakes your students are likely to make.  Then warn them of the dangers in advance.

Carry out:

• The students study the materials, compare and contrast those that are in the same group and those that are in the different groups, attempting to determine the rationale that was used for the classification.  As the students are comparing and contrasting, they will develop different hypotheses, and will have opportunities to test their hypotheses by further examination of their materials, and by discussion in their small groups.
• The teacher's role at this stage is to meander through the classroom, observing the students at work.  You will act as referee and coach.  If students are hesitant about Ataking initiative", or if they are not testing the materials in a way in which they could, you might encourage them to go on with more tests.
• During this time, you could make anecdotal records, or fill in checklists of student actions.

Debrief:

For every teaching strategy involving a debrief, I will suggest a different method.   There are a number of ways in which debriefs can be done.  Please mix and match the different forms of debriefs you use.  In all large group (six or more students), encourage your students to use their conversation skills.  (Don't overteach this, though.  Tell them only once or twice in the year.  Remind them only when you see that they are really forgetting.)  Their conversational skills are to listen carefully to what other speakers say.  Then when they talk, they build on what others have said, and demonstrate this by using phrases such as "What I think is similar to what (another student) said", or "I disagree with what (another student) said, because ..."  Encourage them also to speak tentatively with phrases such as "I thought" or "it seems".

• Put pairs of small groups together, so that if you originally had ten small groups of 3 students, you now have five small groups of six people.  The groups are to discuss their observations and the reasons they think the objects have been classified together.  Limit the time they will have for this discussion.  When their time is up, give them a limited amount of time to come up with a ten word (or twenty, whatever you think is appropriate) phrase to summarize what they think the rationale is for the classification scheme.  Tell the group that they should select one member to be the presentor.
• Have each of the larger groups present their results to the class.
• If your students have not come up with the rationale they should have, think of why they haven't.  What background knowledge were they lacking, or what background knowledge contributed in a non-science way?  What other materials might have helped them to form the concept you wanted them to form?

Check up:

• Once your students have come up with their rationales for the classification scheme, give them a sample which is not labelled.  They are to choose which category this non-labelled sample fits in, and explain why they have classified it with this group.
• You could then ask how many groups changed their categories.

Hints

• For this teaching model to work well, the teacher should ensure that the initial samples given to the students are the clearest possible prototypes.  In other words, if you had given the students samples of vertebrate animals:  mammals, birds, fish, reptiles and amphibians, you would not give them whales and duckbilled platypuses amongst the mammals.  These mammals are not generally what is expected of mammals.  After the students have come up with the description of Abasic" mammals, then you could supply the exotic ones.
• Give the students time to develop their definitions of each category.  Do not interrupt them when their first hypotheses are wrong.  If you have set the model up correctly, the students will come up with the correct rationales eventually.

Examples of concept attainment models:

• Give your students pictures of animals which are classified as mammals, fish, reptiles, birds.  If you add skin samples to your selections, you could also include amphibians.
• Give your students a magnet, and let the magnet choose the materials which are magnetic and which are not, and then the students attempt to determine what the qualities of magnetic materials are vs. non-magnetic.
• Any two or more categories, and science is full of them, will be appropriate.

Monitoring and Evaluation

Monitoring and Evaluation :

Monitoring is the systematic and routine collection of information from projects and programmes for four main purposes:

• To learn from experiences to improve practices and activities in the future;
• To have internal and external accountability of the resources used and the results obtained;
• To take informed decisions on the future of the initiative;
• To promote empowerment of beneficiaries of the initiative.

Monitoring is the systematic process of collecting, analyzing and using information to track a programme’s progress toward reaching its objectives and to guide management decisions. Monitoring usually focuses on processes, such as when and where activities occur, who delivers them and how many people or entities they reach.

Monitoring is conducted after a programme has begun and continues throughout the programme implementation period. Monitoring is sometimes referred to as process, performance or formative evaluation. (Adapted from Gage and Dunn 2009, Frankel and Gage 2007, and PATH Monitoring and Evaluation Initiative)

Monitoring is a periodically recurring task already beginning in the planning stage of a project or programme. Monitoring allows results, processes and experiences to be documented and used as a basis to steer decision-making and learning processes. Monitoring is checking progress against plans. The data acquired through monitoring is used for evaluation.

Evaluation is assessing, as systematically and objectively as possible, a completed project or programme (or a phase of an ongoing project or programme that has been completed). Evaluations appraise data and information that inform strategic decisions, thus improving the project or programme in the future.

Evaluation is the systematic assessment of an activity, project, programme, strategy, policy, topic, theme, sector, operational area or institution’s performance. Evaluation focuses on expected and achieved accomplishments, examining the results chain (inputs, activities, outputs, outcomes and impacts), processes, contextual factors and causality, in order to understand achievements or the lack of achievements. Evaluation aims at determining the relevance, impact, effectiveness, efficiency and sustainability of interventions and the contributions of the intervention to the results achieved. (Adapted from Gage and Dunn 2009, Frankel and Gage 2007)

An evaluation should provide evidence-based information that is credible, reliable and useful.  The findings, recommendations and lessons of an evaluation should be used to inform the future decision-making processes regarding the programme.

Evaluations should help to draw conclusions about five main aspects of the intervention:

• relevance
• effectiveness
• efficiency
• impact
• sustainability

Information gathered in relation to these aspects during the monitoring process provides the basis for the evaluative analysis.

Monitoring & Evaluation is an embedded concept and constitutive part of every project or programme design (“must be”). M&E is not an imposed control instrument by the donor or an optional accessory (“nice to have”) of any project or programme. M&E is ideally understood as dialogue on development and its progress between all stakeholders.

In general, monitoring is integral to evaluation. During an evaluation, information from previous monitoring processes is used to understand the ways in which the project or programme developed and stimulated change. Monitoring focuses on the measurement of the following aspects of an intervention:

• On quantity and quality of the implemented activities (outputs: What do we do? How do we manage our activities?)
• On processes inherent to a project or programme (outcomes: What were the effects /changes that occurred as a result of your intervention?)
• On processes external to an intervention (impact: Which broader, long-term effects were triggered by the implemented activities in combination with other environmental factors?)
• The evaluation process is an analysis or interpretation of the collected data which delves deeper into the relationships between the results of the project/programme, the effects produced by the project/programme and the overall impact of the project/programme.

Importance of monitoring and evaluation 

Monitoring and evaluation are critical for building a strong, evidence base for assessing the wide, diverse range of interventions being implemented .It is a tool for identifying and documenting successful programmes and approaches and tracking progress toward common indicators across related projects. Monitoring and evaluation forms the basis of strengthening understanding around the many multi-layered factors and the effectiveness of the response at the stakeholders level like school management, affiliating bodies, principal,community, parents etc 

At the programme level, the purpose of monitoring and evaluation is to track implementation and outputs systematically, and measure the effectiveness of programmes. It helps determine exactly when a programme is on track and when changes may be needed. Monitoring and evaluation forms the basis for modification of interventions and assessing the quality of activities being conducted.

Monitoring and evaluation can be used to demonstrate that programme efforts have had a measurable impact on expected outcomes and have been implemented effectively. It is essential in helping managers, planners, implementers, policy makers and donors acquire the information and understanding they need to make informed decisions about programme operations.

Monitoring and evaluation helps with identifying the most valuable and efficient use of resources. It is critical for developing objective conclusions regarding the extent to which programmes can be judged a “success”. Monitoring and evaluation together provide the necessary data to guide strategic planning, to design and implement programmes and projects, and to allocate, and re-allocate resources in better ways.

INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH IN EDUCATION

INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH IN EDUCATION

Meaning of Interdisciplinary

Interdisciplinary  allows the student to learn by making connections between ideas and concepts across different disciplinary boundaries. Students learning in this way are able to apply the knowledge gained in one discipline to another different discipline as a way to deepen the learning experience. The most effective approach to interdisciplinary study enables students to build their own interdisciplinary pathway by choosing courses which make sense to them.  For example, it is not too difficult to find a theme which crosses over disciplinary boundaries in literature, art and history or science and mathematics. Studying topics thematically is one way to bring ideas together resulting in more meaningful learning. This can occur by allowing students to choose their own subjects and their learning is deepened when they reflect on the connections between what they are learning in different disciplines.

One of the biggest barriers to achieving true interdisciplinary study in education environments is the necessity for collaboration of educators.  This can be difficult to achieve, but not impossible. Interdisciplinary teaching and learning is maximised when professionals from different disciplines work together to serve a common purpose and to help students make the connections between different disciplines or subject areas. Such interaction is in support of the constructivist paradigm which allows for new knowledge construction and a deeper understanding of ideas than disciplinary study.

Man is a part and parcel of society. He not only satisfies his quality of living but also quality of life. The quality of living enhances his economical aspect of life, which fulfills his bread and butter aim. On the other hand the quality of life helps to flourish all educational efforts in an equitable social order. Thus it can be said that education cannot be separated from the real life experiences. Education being the pivotal point around which ethical, religious, spiritual, physical and psychological aspect of human being revolve. All these aspects are so closely interwoven with one another that if any of its aspects are removed, education fails to achieve its aim.

The aim of education is the unification of knowledge existing in different branches of learning. In social science we study different aspects of human life and its various activities. The process of water-tight compartments of subjects will not give a clear picture of a complete society. Education is a social science in which we study educational activities of human beings in association with other members of a common society. Therefore there is a close relationship with other subjects. No subject can be taught in isolation. Education grows itself in society, made for the society and by the society, which go to develop a nation.

The existing system of education is alienated from real life. There is a gap between the subjects and the objectives and so cannot achieve the objective of national development. The following problems will reveal that there is a gap between the existing systems of education and real life situation: -

*        Education does not attach importance to agriculture.
*        Education does not achieve the goal of economic development.
*        Schools and colleges do not stress on nation- building.
*        No importance is given to ethical, religious and spiritual values.

The national development objectives can be achieved if the above points are fulfilled as all the above facts are interrelated.

The objective of interdisciplinary approach is to give practical shape to the knowledge of various subjects. The education commission has clarified the idea by giving the example of education as a subject. Therefore subjects like physics, chemistry, Mathematics; economics etc. inter related courses can be useful. The Kothari Commission felt that the interdisciplinary approach should be dealt with departments having close relationship. For example education may be offered a new combination with subjects as education and psychology, education and philosophy and education and sociology. Philosophy is the reflective or the thinking process where as the education deals with the implementation of things already philosophized.

Psychology is the science of behavior which education tries to bring out in man's personality. Similarly sociology is the science of society of which education is a part.

For the success of interdisciplinary approach the Kothari Commission established educational departments in four or five universities with the help of UGC. These departments will: -

*        Ensure research development in interdisciplinary approach.
*        Organize summer training to encourage inter disciplinary approach.

Interdisciplinary approach is a technique or tool that establishes reciprocal relationship for better understanding of the subject. No knowledge is permanent unless we correlate one subject with the other. Knowledge is an indivisible whole and cannot be divided. There is a definite relationship between an engineer and a cotton producer because it is a joint venture of the two that a cloth is made. Correlation between subjects or inter-discipline is essential because it: -

*     Makes knowledge stable.
*     Enables to acquire knowledge in a short period.
*     Develops interest in the reader.
*     Lightens the burden of curriculum.
*     Makes knowledge broad based.
*     Develops various human and social activities such as cooperation generosity, harmony etc.
*     Maintains correlation with life.

Education deals with activities in regard to his livelihood. Since livelihood cannot go on without other aspects of social life i.e. social values, norms and standards. Therefore education must be correlated with other subjects. This co-relation between education and other subjects can go hand in hand only if activities of one influence the activities of the other.

This interdisciplinary approach can be strengthened if in Educational research work people choose the topic of one discipline, which shows relevance to another discipline. This should be conducted by team working in interdisciplinary spheres. At the most one supervisor may be assisted by a co-supervisor, both having mastery over two different discipline. Therefore the Ph.D. degree awarded will not possess stamp of one department but of two departments. For example the topic "A Critical Evaluation of Contemporary Indian Theories of Education", can be claimed by both the department of philosophy and education. It is highly philosophical as the topic deals with the philosophical thinking of the philosophers who are educationalists also.

Life is complex, therefore a liberal and eclectic approach should be encouraged. In order to study the complexities of education interdisciplinary study between the department of education, sociology, philosophy, psychology etc. is the need of the hour. Subjects like educational psychology, educational sociology, educational philosophy, comparative religious study etc. should be in vogue in the present day situation. Interdisciplinary approach is an excellent means to creating harmony between various levels and faculties. It is required for a long term plan for any specific study. Knowledge is a unity and in order to maintain its unitary nature it is essential to adopt the interdisciplinary approach.

Benefits of interdisciplinary study :

Students are highly motivated as they have a vested interest in pursuing topics that are interesting to them. As a result, the content is often rooted in life experiences, giving an authentic purpose for the learning and connecting it to a real world context. Consequently, the learning becomes meaningful, purposeful and deeper resulting in learning experiences that stay with the student for a lifetime.
Students cover topics in more depth because they are considering the many and varied perspectives from which a topic can be explored.
Critical thinking skills are used and developed as students look across disciplinary boundaries to consider other viewpoints and also begin to compare and contrast concepts across subject areas.
Students begin to consolidate learning by synthesising ideas from many perspectives and consider an alternative way of acquiring knowledge.
Exploring topics across a range of subject boundaries motivates students to pursue new knowledge in different subject areas.
Transferable skills of critical thinking, synthesis and research are developed and are applicable to future learning experiences.
Interdisciplinary knowledge and application of different disciplines can lead to greater creativity.
Worthwhile topics of research can fall in the ‘spaces’ between the traditional disciplines.

M.Ed syllabus for session 2012-13

Paper IV (Option i ): Educational Technology – I

Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 100 (External : 80, Internal : 20)

NOTE : a) FOR PAPER SETTER

i) Paper setter will set 9 questions in all, out of which students will be required to attempt 5 questions.

ii) Q.No. 1 will be compulsory and will carry 16 marks. It will comprise of 4 short answer type questions of 4 marks each to be selected from the entire syllabus.

iii) Two long answer type questions will be set from each of four units, out of which the students will be required to attempt one question from each unit. Long answer type questions will carry 16 marks each.

b) FOR CANDIDATES

Attempt five questions in all, selecting at least one question from each unit. Question No. 1 is compulsory. All questions carry equal marks.

Course objectives: After completing the course, the students will be able to: ␣ explain the meaning, types and scope of Educational Technology

␣ formulate instructional objectives for different domains ␣ explain the concept of variables, phases and levels of Teaching ␣ describe different Models of teaching and develop two sample lesson plans ␣ explain Microteaching and Flander’s Interaction Analysis along with their principles and

processes.

COURSE CONTENTS UNIT – I

a) Educational Technology: Concept, Nature and Perspective. b) Development of Educational Technology in Historical Perspective, Components of

Educational Technology: Psycho-Technology, Planning Technology, Management- System Technology, ICT.

UNIT – II

a) Objectives: Differentiation and Derivation from Aims to Goals, General Objectives from Goals and Instructional Objectives from General Objectives.

b) Formulating Instructional Objectives, Categorization of Objectives in Taxonomic Categories of Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor Domains.

UNIT – III

a) Teaching: Concept, Variables, Phases and Levels of Teaching: Memory, Understanding and Reflective level.

b) Models of Teaching: i) Inductive Thinking Model, ii) Mastery Learning Model,

iii) Non-directive Model.

UNIT – IV

a) Teacher Training Techniques: Simulated Teaching and Microteaching.

b) Observation of Classroom Interaction: Flanders Interaction Analysis: Concept, Assumptions, Coding and Decoding Procedures.

SELECTED READINGS

1. Ahuja, M. (2007), Mastery Learning- A Practical Approach, Meerut: Vivek Publishers. 2. Bhushan, A & Ahuja, M. (1992), Educational Technology, Meerut : Vikas Publication. 3. Bigge, M.L.& Hunt,M.(1968), Psychological Foundation of Education, London : Harper

and Row Publishers. 4. Bloom, B.S. (1972), Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. A Hand Book- I (Cognitive

Domain), New York: Devid Mokeay Campo. 5. Das, R.C.(1993), Educational Technology : A Basic Text, New Delhi : Sterling

Publishers. 6. Dececco, J.P. & Cramford, W.R.(1970), Psychology of Learning and Instructions, New

Delhi : Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. 7. Flanders, Ned A. (1978), Analyzing Teacher Behaviour, London : Addison Wesley

Publishing Co. 8. Gage, N.L. (1978), The Scientific Basis of the Art of Teaching, London : Teacher’s

College Press. 9. Joyce, B. Weil, M. & Showers, B. (1985), Models of Teaching, New Delhi : Prentice

Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. 10. Mehra, V. (2010), A Text book of Educational Technology, New Delhi : Sanjay

Prakashan.

viva voice - guidelines for students

What is a viva?

The viva voce, shortened to the word ‘viva’, is:

‘an oral examination, typically for an academic qualification’, derived from the Latin: ‘with the living voice’ (Ask Oxford 2006).

Your dissertation demonstrates your skill relating to the written presentation of your research. In the viva you will demonstrate your ability to participate in academic discussion with research colleagues: ‘with the living voice’.

Its purpose is to:

• confirm that the dissertation is your own work;
• confirm that you understand what you have written;
• investigate your awareness of where your original work 
• provide a developmental opportunity for considering future research options.

1. All students are advised to re-read their dissertation carefully. If you notice any mistakes, don’t panic. Make a note of them so that it won’t be a surprise to you if they are mentioned in the viva, and so that you can address them when you are making your final corrections following the viva;

• as you read, make summary notes on the main points on each page;
• print out the contents pages with plenty of spacing, and write very brief summaries of the content under each heading;
• practice telling the story of the whole research in 2 minutes;
• practice telling the story of different chapters, each in 2 minutes;
• identify areas of weakness and make notes on each;
• identify the elements of originality in your dissertation;
• identify your contribution to knowledge;
• identify the theoretical, research, and practical implications of your findings.

1. You are not expected to memorise your thesis. You can take it into the viva with you, and it is acceptable to refer to it to remind yourself of specific details. However, it will not impress the examiners if you flick forwards and backwards trying to find what you are looking for. Some people choose to use small ‘post-it notes’ to attach to the top of pages they think they might want to refer to so that they can locate them quickly and easily if needed.

Mini viva

You need to practice answering viva questions. A list of typical questions is provided in this mini viva handout, and you can add to this yourself. Make sure you include the difficult questions so that you have a chance to practice how you might answer them.

• Think positively. 
• anticipating a potentially interesting discussion;
• confident in your preparation;
• excited at the challenge ahead;
• looking forward to completing the process.h.

General questions

Why did you decide on this particular research question?

What have you found the most interesting aspect of your research?

How did your thinking about this topic develop as you went through this research process?

Now that you have finished the research, which part of the process would you say you enjoyed the most, and why?

How did doing this research change you as a researcher?

Tittle of your dissertation:........

Context or key elements of the dissertation are.......

Definition or meaning of the key terms used in the tittle 

delimitations of the study .....

justification of the study.......

variable in the study....

a. independent variable 

b. dependent variable 

How well did the study design work in practice?

Did you have any problems with the data collection process?

which  research method you have used and why?

How did you establish the limits around the scope of your data collection?

what are method of analysis.

Did you encounter any problems with applying this method of analysis?

Do you think the data you collected were the most appropriate to answer your research question, or are there any other data you would have liked to have collected?

Can you describe your main findings in a few sentences?

Conclusion/implications

What are the research, practice, theoretical implications of your findings?

.

1. Flanders interaction Analysis 

• FIACS - Meaning of interaction analysis 
• what is a coding and decoding procedure
• how matrix is construction
• what are various method of analysis 
• how to calculate various Ratios- TTK,DTR etc.

1. community survey

• topic of your community survey
• what are your findings of community survey 

1. psychological test

• what are the name of the psychological test u administered 
• what are your finding 
• what u have learnt in your process of psychological test administration 

1. case study of a problematic chid

• how you have identified the problematic chid 
• what do you mean by case study 
• what are the advantage for using case study method for helping the child

1. case study of institution 

• what is the importance of case study of institution

1. construction and validation of achievement test 

• meaning of  difficulty value 
• meaning of discrimination index