Monitoring and Evaluation

Monitoring and Evaluation :

Monitoring is the systematic and routine collection of information from projects and programmes for four main purposes:

• To learn from experiences to improve practices and activities in the future;
• To have internal and external accountability of the resources used and the results obtained;
• To take informed decisions on the future of the initiative;
• To promote empowerment of beneficiaries of the initiative.

Monitoring is the systematic process of collecting, analyzing and using information to track a programme’s progress toward reaching its objectives and to guide management decisions. Monitoring usually focuses on processes, such as when and where activities occur, who delivers them and how many people or entities they reach.

Monitoring is conducted after a programme has begun and continues throughout the programme implementation period. Monitoring is sometimes referred to as process, performance or formative evaluation. (Adapted from Gage and Dunn 2009, Frankel and Gage 2007, and PATH Monitoring and Evaluation Initiative)

Monitoring is a periodically recurring task already beginning in the planning stage of a project or programme. Monitoring allows results, processes and experiences to be documented and used as a basis to steer decision-making and learning processes. Monitoring is checking progress against plans. The data acquired through monitoring is used for evaluation.

Evaluation is assessing, as systematically and objectively as possible, a completed project or programme (or a phase of an ongoing project or programme that has been completed). Evaluations appraise data and information that inform strategic decisions, thus improving the project or programme in the future.

Evaluation is the systematic assessment of an activity, project, programme, strategy, policy, topic, theme, sector, operational area or institution’s performance. Evaluation focuses on expected and achieved accomplishments, examining the results chain (inputs, activities, outputs, outcomes and impacts), processes, contextual factors and causality, in order to understand achievements or the lack of achievements. Evaluation aims at determining the relevance, impact, effectiveness, efficiency and sustainability of interventions and the contributions of the intervention to the results achieved. (Adapted from Gage and Dunn 2009, Frankel and Gage 2007)

An evaluation should provide evidence-based information that is credible, reliable and useful.  The findings, recommendations and lessons of an evaluation should be used to inform the future decision-making processes regarding the programme.

Evaluations should help to draw conclusions about five main aspects of the intervention:

• relevance
• effectiveness
• efficiency
• impact
• sustainability

Information gathered in relation to these aspects during the monitoring process provides the basis for the evaluative analysis.

Monitoring & Evaluation is an embedded concept and constitutive part of every project or programme design (“must be”). M&E is not an imposed control instrument by the donor or an optional accessory (“nice to have”) of any project or programme. M&E is ideally understood as dialogue on development and its progress between all stakeholders.

In general, monitoring is integral to evaluation. During an evaluation, information from previous monitoring processes is used to understand the ways in which the project or programme developed and stimulated change. Monitoring focuses on the measurement of the following aspects of an intervention:

• On quantity and quality of the implemented activities (outputs: What do we do? How do we manage our activities?)
• On processes inherent to a project or programme (outcomes: What were the effects /changes that occurred as a result of your intervention?)
• On processes external to an intervention (impact: Which broader, long-term effects were triggered by the implemented activities in combination with other environmental factors?)
• The evaluation process is an analysis or interpretation of the collected data which delves deeper into the relationships between the results of the project/programme, the effects produced by the project/programme and the overall impact of the project/programme.

Importance of monitoring and evaluation 

Monitoring and evaluation are critical for building a strong, evidence base for assessing the wide, diverse range of interventions being implemented .It is a tool for identifying and documenting successful programmes and approaches and tracking progress toward common indicators across related projects. Monitoring and evaluation forms the basis of strengthening understanding around the many multi-layered factors and the effectiveness of the response at the stakeholders level like school management, affiliating bodies, principal,community, parents etc 

At the programme level, the purpose of monitoring and evaluation is to track implementation and outputs systematically, and measure the effectiveness of programmes. It helps determine exactly when a programme is on track and when changes may be needed. Monitoring and evaluation forms the basis for modification of interventions and assessing the quality of activities being conducted.

Monitoring and evaluation can be used to demonstrate that programme efforts have had a measurable impact on expected outcomes and have been implemented effectively. It is essential in helping managers, planners, implementers, policy makers and donors acquire the information and understanding they need to make informed decisions about programme operations.

Monitoring and evaluation helps with identifying the most valuable and efficient use of resources. It is critical for developing objective conclusions regarding the extent to which programmes can be judged a “success”. Monitoring and evaluation together provide the necessary data to guide strategic planning, to design and implement programmes and projects, and to allocate, and re-allocate resources in better ways.

INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH IN EDUCATION

INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH IN EDUCATION

Meaning of Interdisciplinary

Interdisciplinary  allows the student to learn by making connections between ideas and concepts across different disciplinary boundaries. Students learning in this way are able to apply the knowledge gained in one discipline to another different discipline as a way to deepen the learning experience. The most effective approach to interdisciplinary study enables students to build their own interdisciplinary pathway by choosing courses which make sense to them.  For example, it is not too difficult to find a theme which crosses over disciplinary boundaries in literature, art and history or science and mathematics. Studying topics thematically is one way to bring ideas together resulting in more meaningful learning. This can occur by allowing students to choose their own subjects and their learning is deepened when they reflect on the connections between what they are learning in different disciplines.

One of the biggest barriers to achieving true interdisciplinary study in education environments is the necessity for collaboration of educators.  This can be difficult to achieve, but not impossible. Interdisciplinary teaching and learning is maximised when professionals from different disciplines work together to serve a common purpose and to help students make the connections between different disciplines or subject areas. Such interaction is in support of the constructivist paradigm which allows for new knowledge construction and a deeper understanding of ideas than disciplinary study.

Man is a part and parcel of society. He not only satisfies his quality of living but also quality of life. The quality of living enhances his economical aspect of life, which fulfills his bread and butter aim. On the other hand the quality of life helps to flourish all educational efforts in an equitable social order. Thus it can be said that education cannot be separated from the real life experiences. Education being the pivotal point around which ethical, religious, spiritual, physical and psychological aspect of human being revolve. All these aspects are so closely interwoven with one another that if any of its aspects are removed, education fails to achieve its aim.

The aim of education is the unification of knowledge existing in different branches of learning. In social science we study different aspects of human life and its various activities. The process of water-tight compartments of subjects will not give a clear picture of a complete society. Education is a social science in which we study educational activities of human beings in association with other members of a common society. Therefore there is a close relationship with other subjects. No subject can be taught in isolation. Education grows itself in society, made for the society and by the society, which go to develop a nation.

The existing system of education is alienated from real life. There is a gap between the subjects and the objectives and so cannot achieve the objective of national development. The following problems will reveal that there is a gap between the existing systems of education and real life situation: -

*        Education does not attach importance to agriculture.
*        Education does not achieve the goal of economic development.
*        Schools and colleges do not stress on nation- building.
*        No importance is given to ethical, religious and spiritual values.

The national development objectives can be achieved if the above points are fulfilled as all the above facts are interrelated.

The objective of interdisciplinary approach is to give practical shape to the knowledge of various subjects. The education commission has clarified the idea by giving the example of education as a subject. Therefore subjects like physics, chemistry, Mathematics; economics etc. inter related courses can be useful. The Kothari Commission felt that the interdisciplinary approach should be dealt with departments having close relationship. For example education may be offered a new combination with subjects as education and psychology, education and philosophy and education and sociology. Philosophy is the reflective or the thinking process where as the education deals with the implementation of things already philosophized.

Psychology is the science of behavior which education tries to bring out in man's personality. Similarly sociology is the science of society of which education is a part.

For the success of interdisciplinary approach the Kothari Commission established educational departments in four or five universities with the help of UGC. These departments will: -

*        Ensure research development in interdisciplinary approach.
*        Organize summer training to encourage inter disciplinary approach.

Interdisciplinary approach is a technique or tool that establishes reciprocal relationship for better understanding of the subject. No knowledge is permanent unless we correlate one subject with the other. Knowledge is an indivisible whole and cannot be divided. There is a definite relationship between an engineer and a cotton producer because it is a joint venture of the two that a cloth is made. Correlation between subjects or inter-discipline is essential because it: -

*     Makes knowledge stable.
*     Enables to acquire knowledge in a short period.
*     Develops interest in the reader.
*     Lightens the burden of curriculum.
*     Makes knowledge broad based.
*     Develops various human and social activities such as cooperation generosity, harmony etc.
*     Maintains correlation with life.

Education deals with activities in regard to his livelihood. Since livelihood cannot go on without other aspects of social life i.e. social values, norms and standards. Therefore education must be correlated with other subjects. This co-relation between education and other subjects can go hand in hand only if activities of one influence the activities of the other.

This interdisciplinary approach can be strengthened if in Educational research work people choose the topic of one discipline, which shows relevance to another discipline. This should be conducted by team working in interdisciplinary spheres. At the most one supervisor may be assisted by a co-supervisor, both having mastery over two different discipline. Therefore the Ph.D. degree awarded will not possess stamp of one department but of two departments. For example the topic "A Critical Evaluation of Contemporary Indian Theories of Education", can be claimed by both the department of philosophy and education. It is highly philosophical as the topic deals with the philosophical thinking of the philosophers who are educationalists also.

Life is complex, therefore a liberal and eclectic approach should be encouraged. In order to study the complexities of education interdisciplinary study between the department of education, sociology, philosophy, psychology etc. is the need of the hour. Subjects like educational psychology, educational sociology, educational philosophy, comparative religious study etc. should be in vogue in the present day situation. Interdisciplinary approach is an excellent means to creating harmony between various levels and faculties. It is required for a long term plan for any specific study. Knowledge is a unity and in order to maintain its unitary nature it is essential to adopt the interdisciplinary approach.

Benefits of interdisciplinary study :

Students are highly motivated as they have a vested interest in pursuing topics that are interesting to them. As a result, the content is often rooted in life experiences, giving an authentic purpose for the learning and connecting it to a real world context. Consequently, the learning becomes meaningful, purposeful and deeper resulting in learning experiences that stay with the student for a lifetime.
Students cover topics in more depth because they are considering the many and varied perspectives from which a topic can be explored.
Critical thinking skills are used and developed as students look across disciplinary boundaries to consider other viewpoints and also begin to compare and contrast concepts across subject areas.
Students begin to consolidate learning by synthesising ideas from many perspectives and consider an alternative way of acquiring knowledge.
Exploring topics across a range of subject boundaries motivates students to pursue new knowledge in different subject areas.
Transferable skills of critical thinking, synthesis and research are developed and are applicable to future learning experiences.
Interdisciplinary knowledge and application of different disciplines can lead to greater creativity.
Worthwhile topics of research can fall in the ‘spaces’ between the traditional disciplines.

M.Ed syllabus for session 2012-13

Paper IV (Option i ): Educational Technology – I

Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 100 (External : 80, Internal : 20)

NOTE : a) FOR PAPER SETTER

i) Paper setter will set 9 questions in all, out of which students will be required to attempt 5 questions.

ii) Q.No. 1 will be compulsory and will carry 16 marks. It will comprise of 4 short answer type questions of 4 marks each to be selected from the entire syllabus.

iii) Two long answer type questions will be set from each of four units, out of which the students will be required to attempt one question from each unit. Long answer type questions will carry 16 marks each.

b) FOR CANDIDATES

Attempt five questions in all, selecting at least one question from each unit. Question No. 1 is compulsory. All questions carry equal marks.

Course objectives: After completing the course, the students will be able to: ␣ explain the meaning, types and scope of Educational Technology

␣ formulate instructional objectives for different domains ␣ explain the concept of variables, phases and levels of Teaching ␣ describe different Models of teaching and develop two sample lesson plans ␣ explain Microteaching and Flander’s Interaction Analysis along with their principles and

processes.

COURSE CONTENTS UNIT – I

a) Educational Technology: Concept, Nature and Perspective. b) Development of Educational Technology in Historical Perspective, Components of

Educational Technology: Psycho-Technology, Planning Technology, Management- System Technology, ICT.

UNIT – II

a) Objectives: Differentiation and Derivation from Aims to Goals, General Objectives from Goals and Instructional Objectives from General Objectives.

b) Formulating Instructional Objectives, Categorization of Objectives in Taxonomic Categories of Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor Domains.

UNIT – III

a) Teaching: Concept, Variables, Phases and Levels of Teaching: Memory, Understanding and Reflective level.

b) Models of Teaching: i) Inductive Thinking Model, ii) Mastery Learning Model,

iii) Non-directive Model.

UNIT – IV

a) Teacher Training Techniques: Simulated Teaching and Microteaching.

b) Observation of Classroom Interaction: Flanders Interaction Analysis: Concept, Assumptions, Coding and Decoding Procedures.

SELECTED READINGS

1. Ahuja, M. (2007), Mastery Learning- A Practical Approach, Meerut: Vivek Publishers. 2. Bhushan, A & Ahuja, M. (1992), Educational Technology, Meerut : Vikas Publication. 3. Bigge, M.L.& Hunt,M.(1968), Psychological Foundation of Education, London : Harper

and Row Publishers. 4. Bloom, B.S. (1972), Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. A Hand Book- I (Cognitive

Domain), New York: Devid Mokeay Campo. 5. Das, R.C.(1993), Educational Technology : A Basic Text, New Delhi : Sterling

Publishers. 6. Dececco, J.P. & Cramford, W.R.(1970), Psychology of Learning and Instructions, New

Delhi : Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. 7. Flanders, Ned A. (1978), Analyzing Teacher Behaviour, London : Addison Wesley

Publishing Co. 8. Gage, N.L. (1978), The Scientific Basis of the Art of Teaching, London : Teacher’s

College Press. 9. Joyce, B. Weil, M. & Showers, B. (1985), Models of Teaching, New Delhi : Prentice

Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. 10. Mehra, V. (2010), A Text book of Educational Technology, New Delhi : Sanjay

Prakashan.

viva voice - guidelines for students

What is a viva?

The viva voce, shortened to the word ‘viva’, is:

‘an oral examination, typically for an academic qualification’, derived from the Latin: ‘with the living voice’ (Ask Oxford 2006).

Your dissertation demonstrates your skill relating to the written presentation of your research. In the viva you will demonstrate your ability to participate in academic discussion with research colleagues: ‘with the living voice’.

Its purpose is to:

• confirm that the dissertation is your own work;
• confirm that you understand what you have written;
• investigate your awareness of where your original work 
• provide a developmental opportunity for considering future research options.

1. All students are advised to re-read their dissertation carefully. If you notice any mistakes, don’t panic. Make a note of them so that it won’t be a surprise to you if they are mentioned in the viva, and so that you can address them when you are making your final corrections following the viva;

• as you read, make summary notes on the main points on each page;
• print out the contents pages with plenty of spacing, and write very brief summaries of the content under each heading;
• practice telling the story of the whole research in 2 minutes;
• practice telling the story of different chapters, each in 2 minutes;
• identify areas of weakness and make notes on each;
• identify the elements of originality in your dissertation;
• identify your contribution to knowledge;
• identify the theoretical, research, and practical implications of your findings.

1. You are not expected to memorise your thesis. You can take it into the viva with you, and it is acceptable to refer to it to remind yourself of specific details. However, it will not impress the examiners if you flick forwards and backwards trying to find what you are looking for. Some people choose to use small ‘post-it notes’ to attach to the top of pages they think they might want to refer to so that they can locate them quickly and easily if needed.

Mini viva

You need to practice answering viva questions. A list of typical questions is provided in this mini viva handout, and you can add to this yourself. Make sure you include the difficult questions so that you have a chance to practice how you might answer them.

• Think positively. 
• anticipating a potentially interesting discussion;
• confident in your preparation;
• excited at the challenge ahead;
• looking forward to completing the process.h.

General questions

Why did you decide on this particular research question?

What have you found the most interesting aspect of your research?

How did your thinking about this topic develop as you went through this research process?

Now that you have finished the research, which part of the process would you say you enjoyed the most, and why?

How did doing this research change you as a researcher?

Tittle of your dissertation:........

Context or key elements of the dissertation are.......

Definition or meaning of the key terms used in the tittle 

delimitations of the study .....

justification of the study.......

variable in the study....

a. independent variable 

b. dependent variable 

How well did the study design work in practice?

Did you have any problems with the data collection process?

which  research method you have used and why?

How did you establish the limits around the scope of your data collection?

what are method of analysis.

Did you encounter any problems with applying this method of analysis?

Do you think the data you collected were the most appropriate to answer your research question, or are there any other data you would have liked to have collected?

Can you describe your main findings in a few sentences?

Conclusion/implications

What are the research, practice, theoretical implications of your findings?

.

1. Flanders interaction Analysis 

• FIACS - Meaning of interaction analysis 
• what is a coding and decoding procedure
• how matrix is construction
• what are various method of analysis 
• how to calculate various Ratios- TTK,DTR etc.

1. community survey

• topic of your community survey
• what are your findings of community survey 

1. psychological test

• what are the name of the psychological test u administered 
• what are your finding 
• what u have learnt in your process of psychological test administration 

1. case study of a problematic chid

• how you have identified the problematic chid 
• what do you mean by case study 
• what are the advantage for using case study method for helping the child

1. case study of institution 

• what is the importance of case study of institution

1. construction and validation of achievement test 

• meaning of  difficulty value 
• meaning of discrimination index

Micro Teaching - outline

CONCEPT OF MICRO-TEACHING 

Micro-teaching is a teacher training technique which helps the teacher trainee to master the teaching skills. It requires the teacher trainee

1. to teach a single concept of content

1. using a specified teaching skill

1. for a short time

1. to a very small member of pupils

1. Knowledge Acquisition Phase.

1. Skill Acquisition Phase.

1. Transfer Phase of Micro-teaching.

In this way the teacher trainee practises the teaching skill in terms of definable, observable, measurable and controlable form with repeated cycles till he attains mastery in the use of skill.

ASSUMPTIONS OF MICRO-TEACHING

From the foregoing discussion about the concept of micro-teaching you might have thought of the assumption on which it is based. Let us pinpoint them :

Teaching is a complex process but can be analysed into simple skills.

Teaching skills can be practiced one by one upto mastery level under specific and simplified situation.

Appropriate feed back if systematically given proves very significant for obtaining mastery level in each skill.

When all skills have been mastered taken one by one, they can be integrated for real classroom teaching.

The skill training can be conveniently transferred from simulated teaching situation to actual classroom teaching situation.

Steps of Micro-teaching 

The Micro-teaching programme involves the following steps :

Step I Particular skill to be practised is explained to the teacher trainees in terms of the purpose and components of the skill with suitable examples.

Step II The teacher trainer gives the demonstration of the skill in Micro-teaching in simulated conditions to the teacher trainees.

Step III The teacher trainee plans a short lesson plan on the basis of the demonstrated skill for his/her practice.

Step IV The teacher trainee teaches the lesson to a small group of pupils. His lesson is supervised by the supervisor and peers.

Step V On the basis of the observation of a lesson, the supervisor gives feedback to the teacher trainee. The supervisor reinforces the instances of effective use of the skill and draws attention of the teacher trainee to the points where he could not do well.

Step VI In the light of the feed-back given by the supervisor, the teacher trainee replans the lesson plan in order to use the skill in more effective manner in the second trial.

Step VII The revised lesson is taught to another comparable group of pupils.

Step VIII The supervisor observes the re-teach lesson and gives re-feed back to the teacher trainee with convincing arguments and reasons.

Step IX The ‘teach – re-teach’ cycle may be repeated several times till adequate mastery level is achieved.

Micro-teaching Cycle

The six steps generally involved in micro-teaching cycle are

Plan : This involves the selection of the topic and related content of such a nature in which the use of components of the skill under practice may be made easily and conveniently. The topic is analysed into different activities of the teacher and the pupils. The activities are planned in such a logical sequence where maximum application of the components of a skill are possible.

Teach : This  involves the attempts of the teacher trainee to use the components of the skill in suitable situations coming up in the process of teaching-learning as per his/her planning of activities. If the situation is different and not as visualised in the planing of the activities, the  teacher should modify his/her behaviour as per the demand of the situation in the class. He should have the courage and confidence to handle the situation arising in the class effectively.

Feedback : This term refers to giving information to the teacher trainee about his performance. The information includes the points of strength as well as weakness relating to his/her performance. This helps the teacher trainee to improve upon his/her performance in the desired direction.

Re-plan : The teacher trainee replans his lesson incorporating the points of strength and removing the points not skillfully handled during teaching in the previous attempt either on the same topic or on another topic suiting to the teacher trainee for improvement.

Re-teach : This involves teaching to the same group of pupils if the topic is changed or to a different group of pupils if the topic is the same. This is done to remove boredom or monotony of the pupil. The teacher trainee teaches the class with renewed courage and confidence to perform better than the previous attempt.

Re-feedback : This is the most important component of Micro-teaching for behaviour modifiction of teacher trainee in the desired direction in each and every skill practice.

Phases of Micro-teaching

There are three phases of the Micro-teaching procedure which you have studied in the previous section of this Unit. They are :

Let us discuss these phases one by one.

Knowledge Acquisition Phase :  In this phase the teacher trainee learns about the skill and its components through discussion, illustrations and demonstration of the skill given by the expert. He learns about the purpose of the skill and the condition under which it proves useful in the teaching-learning process. His/Her analysis of the skill into components leading to various types of behaviours which is to be practised. The teacher trainee tries to gain a lot about the skill from the demonstration given by the expert . He discusses and clarifies each and every aspect of the skill.

Skill Acquisition Phase :   On the basis of the demonstration presented by the expert, the teacher trainee plans a micro-lesson, lesson for practising the demonstrated skill. He practices the teaching skill through the Micro-teaching cycle and continues his efforts till he attains mastery level. The feed-back component of micro-teaching contributes significantly towards the mastery level acquisition of the skill. On the basis of the performance of teacher trainee in teaching, the feed back is provided for the purpose of change in behaviour of the teacher trainee in the desired direction.

Transfer Phase of Micro-teaching :  After attaining mastery level and command over each of the skills, the teacher trainee integrates all these skills and transfer to actual classroom teaching is done during this transfer phase.

TEACHING IS ..........

Teaching is 

Teaching means many different things, that teaching act varies from person to person and from situation to situation. (Bar, 1961)

The behaviour or activities of persons as they go about doing whatever is required of teachers, particularly those activities which are concerned with the guidance or direction of learning of others.

(Ryan, 1965)

Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement under which students learn. They learn without teaching in their natural environment, but teachers arrange special contingencies which expedite learning and hastening the appearance of behaviour which would otherwise be acquired slowly or making scene of the appearance of behaviour which might otherwise never occur.

(B.F. Skinner. 1968)

Teaching as an act of interpersonal influence aimed at changing the ways in which other persons can or will behave.

(N.L. Gage, 1963)

The minimum requirement of any training programme is that it should enable the trainee to acquire the basis skills and competencies of a good teacher.

(Challenge of Education, A Policy Perspective 1986,

 National Commission on Teachers)

Teachers’ performance is most critical in-put in the field of education ……….

(Challenge of Education, A Policy Perspective 1986,

  National Commission on Teachers)

The teacher training too is not planned and organised to develop the spirit of inquiry, initiative, scientific temper, manual-dexterity, conceptual clarity and linguistic skills for effective speaking and writing which teachers are expected to impart to their students. Adequate attention is also not given to develop communication skills which is critical to the function of the teachers …….

(Challenge of Education, A Policy Perspective 1986,  

National Commission on Teachers)

It may not be wrong to say that in such defective practical and theoretically overloaded teacher education programme, the trainee remains almost at the same level in his teaching competence even after training ……

(R.C. Das and associates, 1980, NCERT)

From the definitions of teaching given  it is evident that teaching is a very complex activity. However it can be roughly concluded that teaching activity :

• is imparting knowledge or skill.

• it involves doing all things that may lead to learning.

• it is a social act of influence. 

From all these components of teaching we can say that there is no specific and universally accepted definition of teaching and teacher effectiveness.

Communication as a process and it elements

Elements of Communication

COMMUNICATION- The process of human beings responding to the symbolic behavior of other persons.

-First Characteristic of Definition: Communication is a “Process.”  

Communication is “Process” several reasons:

1.We do not communicate to other people, we communicate with other people.  

To understand difference, we first need to talk about the components of communication: 

-Sender, Receiver… 

-Message Encoding, Message Decoding… 

-Psychological Noise, Physiological Noise

-Communication Channels, 

-AND Communication Environment.

Sender-The person or persons responsible for creating a message to be sent.

Ex. A teacher gives a lecture 

      

      A parent a child an instruction to follow 

      

     

…All these people are sending messages.

Receiver- The person or persons who are receiving the created messages.

Ex. An student  receives the teachers lecture 

      

      The students are  the recipient of the teacher  lecture…

      

      Communication Channel- The medium a receiver uses to send his or her message.  

**Channels may be verbal or nonverbal**

Ex. Speech is a channel… 

      

      Writing is a channel… 

       Non-verbal gestures are channels… 

       Voice Tones are channels…And so on.

Encoding- When a sender attempts to replicate his or her internal thoughts or feelings into some kind of external message medium for the sake of transmitting those thoughts or feelings to another person or persons.

   

It’s easy to tell if sender(teacher ) encodes message poorly because he or she say things like: 

“That’s not what I meant to say,” or… 

“That’s not what I mean,” or… 

“What I really wanted to say was…” and so forth. 

If teacher  is a skilled “encoder,” we call him or her “articulate,” “well spoken,” or even “eloquent.”  

And research has shown that good speakers are considered more trustworthy, intelligent, competent, and personable than poor speakers…

…even if speaker’s are saying exact same thing.

Obviously, there isn’t always a relationship between speaking well & intelligence & competency…

This phenomena -known as Halo Effect- refers to the fact that if people identify you as skilled in one area……They often will assume you are skilled in other areas as well.

Message Decoding- Occurs when the receiver attempts to ascertain the meaning of the sender’s message.

And figuring out what other people “mean” isn’t easy.

I’m sure all of us had times when we’ve had others become frustrated w/ us because we didn’t understand what they meant…

I’m sure we’ve all became frustrated w/ other people when they didn’t understand what we meant.

**There are several factors that prevent human beings from decoding other’s messages effectively…

Noise- Any force that interferes with effective communication.

Three types: External noise, physiological noise, psychological noise.

External Noise- Refers to any physical phenomenon that might impair a receiver’s ability to decode a message.  

Physiological Noise- Involves biological factors in the receiver or sender that interfere with accurate reception.

Psychological Noise- Involves mental forces within a receiver or sender that might inhibit his or her ability to either encode or decode a message correctly.

Ex. If a receiver suffers from low-self esteem, might interpret a sincere compliment as sarcastic or condescending even though it wasn’t.  

Environment- Fields of experience or cultural backgrounds that influence the way communicators encode and decode messages.

Now lets  defined components of communication…Let’s get back to our definition of communication as a “process”

Essentially, defining communication as process means communication does not work linearly but circularly instead.

Communication in Interpersonal situations involves sending and receiving messages at the same time.

Ex. While I’m lecturing, you’re giving me nonverbal feedback about your opinion of the lecture: 

Yawning, stretching, sleeping, nodding off, doodling in your notebook, etc.   

teachers both sending and receiving messages at the same time!

Sometimes we consciously plan our communication…sometimes we don’t.  

Misunderstandings occur when we assume all communication is planned.  

Ex. If one of you yawns or nods off, you might be intentionally acting rudely… 

…Or maybe you’re trying to be good listener, but are tired because you were up all night studying for another test.  

If I jump to a conclusion about the reason for your yawning, I may end up unjustly punishing you in participation points department.

Sometimes our own unconscious communication has negative consequences for ourselves and the person we’re communicating with.  

Ex. If your supervisor is instructing you and you fold your arms…

…He or she may interpret the arm folding as an act of defiance and become more stern in future when interacting with you…  

…So you weren’t trying to be defiant, but your unconscious communication  gave impression that you were.

The important lesson here is that most people assume messages are easily created and easily interpreted…but this is just not the case.  

When we’re decoding each other’s messages… 

…We have to remember that many factors are continually influencing our ability and intent when we’re encoding and decoding messages.

Miscommunication, resentment, anger and hostility often result in relationships when communicators unaware of influence factors have.

Bottom line: If you remember that communication is process… 

…You’ll communicate more effectively because you’ll be aware of many factors involved in any given communication event: 

You’ll be less likely to assume, less likely to rush judgment… 

…More likely tailor your message to your audience correctly, 

More likely to correctly encode and decode other’s messages. 

                                                                                                                            

Second aspect of our definition is that this class deals with HUMAN COMMUNICATION only.

                                                                                                                           

Third, COMMUNICATION is “Symbolic.”

Symbols- Are things used to stand for or represent something else.  

Symbols not limited to words; symbols include nonverbal displays or objects.

Ex. “Red light” symbolizes an order to “Stop.”

      

       Colors “red, white, and blue” symbolize patriotism.

       

       Wearing “Oakland Raiders Gear” symbolizes you can’t read and 

        probably abuse drugs…

*So symbols are anything that stands for something else.